Exclusion criteria:
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1. Patients with severe primary diseases of the cardiocerebrovascular, renal, hepatic, or hematopoietic systems, or with malignant tumors or psychiatric disorders.
2. Women within 10 years of menopause.
3. Secondary osteoporosis caused by serious primary diseases, such as endocrine disorders (e.g., hyperthyroidism, diabetes, rheumatism), renal, nutritional, hematological, drug - induced, disuse, or congenital factors.
4. Patients with osteopenia who need anti - osteoporosis medication as per guidelines, such as those with a history of fragility fractures in the proximal humerus, distal forearm, or pelvis, or with a 10 - year hip fracture risk ≥3% or a 10 - year risk of other major osteoporotic fractures ≥20% as calculated by FRAX.
5. Patients who have used glucocorticoids, antiepileptics, or drugs affecting calcium, phosphorus, and bone metabolism within the past 6 months.
6. Patients allergic to or unable to tolerate any intervention in this study.
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